Pre Columbian Civilizations

South America boasts a rich history dating back thousands of years, characterized by the ebb and flow of vibrant civilizations. The initial human migration into North America likely occurred over the Bering Land Bridge around 15,000 to 20,000 years ago, as people gradually made their way southward.

Aztecs

Mexico, a land steeped in history, witnessed the rise of remarkable civilizations that left an indelible mark on the cultural tapestry of the region. Around 3,000 years ago, the Olmec civilization emerged, heralded as Mesoamerica's earliest complex society. Known for colossal stone heads and advanced agricultural practices, the Olmecs laid the foundations for subsequent cultures.

Following the Olmecs, the Zapotecs and Mixtecs flourished in the Oaxaca Valley. These civilizations, thriving around 2,500 years ago, were distinguished by their intricate artistry, including impressive pottery and monumental architecture.

In central Mexico, the Teotihuacan civilization, with its awe-inspiring pyramids, reached its zenith around 1,900 years ago. This city, one of the largest in the ancient world, showcased advanced urban planning and an intricate social structure.

Following the decline of Teotihuacan, Mesoamerica witnessed the ascent of various city-states, each contributing to the complex mosaic of regional civilizations. By the 14th century, the Aztecs emerged as a dominant force in central Mexico. Originating from humble roots in the marshes of Lake Texcoco, the Aztecs gradually established their capital, Tenochtitlán, on an island in the lake.

Tenochtitlán swiftly became a cultural and economic powerhouse, incorporating architectural marvels like the Templo Mayor and flourishing as a vibrant hub of trade and innovation. The Aztecs expanded their influence through military conquests, creating the Triple Alliance with Texcoco and Tlacopan. By the early 16th century, the Aztec Empire comprised a confederation of city-states, each with its own unique cultural identity. Texcoco, renowned for its intellectual achievements and artistic prowess, and Tlacopan, a strategic ally in the alliance, were integral parts of this dynamic empire.

However, this flourishing civilization faced an abrupt upheaval with the arrival of Spanish conquistadors, led by Hernán Cortés, in 1519. Hernán Cortés and his Spanish expedition arrived on the shores of Mexico, setting in motion a series of events that would reshape the course of history. The Aztec Empire, led by Moctezuma II, encountered the unfamiliar sight of armored conquistadors and advanced weaponry, marking the collision of two worlds.

Initially, Moctezuma, believing Cortés to be a deity or the fulfillment of a prophecy, welcomed the Spaniards into the grand city of Tenochtitlán. However, the veneer of diplomacy soon eroded as tensions escalated. The Spanish sought to expand their influence, and the Aztecs, wary of the strangers' intentions, resisted.
The breaking point came when Cortés, hearing news of Spanish expeditions seeking to arrest him, made the controversial decision to leave Tenochtitlán temporarily. He left the city in the hands of his lieutenant, Pedro de Alvarado, and departed on May 19, 1520.

During Cortés' absence, Alvarado's heavy-handed approach, including a massacre during a religious festival, further fueled the animosity between the Aztecs and the Spanish. The situation reached a boiling point, and the Aztecs, under the leadership of Cuitláhuac, decided to act. The night of June 30, 1520, unfolded as a calamity for the Spanish forces. As they attempted to retreat from Tenochtitlán under the cover of darkness, the Aztecs, aware of their plans, launched a ferocious attack. The Spaniards found themselves trapped in the narrow causeways and bridges, facing the full fury of Aztec resistance.

The battle was brutal, and many Spanish soldiers lost their lives. Cortés, leading the desperate retreat, barely escaped with his life. The surviving conquistadors, battered and demoralized, limped away from Tenochtitlán, leaving behind the grandeur of the city they had sought to conquer.

This fateful night set the stage for the siege of Tenochtitlán in the following year which led to the fall of Tenochtitlán. The once-mighty Aztec Empire succumbed to a combination of military might, internal strife, and devastating diseases. The Mexica capital lay in ruins, marking the end of an era.

Chichen Itza 2 (© 2004 Rudolf van de Ven)

Chichen Itza (© 2004 Rudolf van de Ven)

Teotihuacan (© 2018 Rudolf van de Ven)

Chan Chan

Human presence in Peru traces back over 12,000 years, marked by the arrival of early hunter-gatherer communities. These nomadic groups settled along the coast and fertile valleys, relying on fishing and rudimentary agriculture.

Around 3000 BCE, more complex societies emerged, including the Norte Chico civilization, known for impressive ceremonial centers and early urban planning. Concurrently, the Chavín culture thrived, leaving behind distinctive artistic expressions and religious practices.

In the subsequent centuries, various pre-Inca cultures rose and fell, contributing to the region's rich cultural tapestry. The Moche, with intricate pottery and pyramids, and the Nazca, famous for enigmatic lines etched into the desert floor, left enduring imprints.

The Chan Chan civilization, flourishing between the 9th and 15th centuries along the northern coast of Peru, represents an extraordinary chapter in the region's rich history. Though precise dates are challenging to ascertain, estimates suggest that Chan Chan's zenith occurred during the late intermediate period, spanning approximately 850 to 1470 CE.

Chan Chan was the capital of the Chimu Kingdom, and its construction began around 850 CE. The city's design, characterized by intricate adobe architecture, intricate urban planning, and colossal walls, reflected the Chimu's mastery in city-building. Channels, reservoirs, and plazas adorned the cityscape, showcasing advanced engineering skills.

The Chimu people were adept at agriculture, employing innovative irrigation systems to cultivate the arid coastal land. Their knowledge of hydraulics and water management enabled the sustained growth of crops in a challenging environment. This agricultural prowess, coupled with extensive trade networks, contributed to Chan Chan's economic prosperity.

Prominent leaders of the Chimu, such as Tacaynamo and Minchancaman, are mentioned in historical records, offering glimpses into the political structure of Chan Chan. Little is known about their governance and societal organization, yet the city's sheer scale suggests a complex and hierarchical society.

The downfall of Chan Chan is linked to the expansion of the Inca Empire. In 1470 CE, under the rule of the Inca emperor Tupac Inca Yupanqui, Chan Chan was conquered, marking the end of Chimu sovereignty. The Inca, recognizing the architectural and engineering marvel of Chan Chan, incorporated elements of its design into their own structures.

Chan Chan (© 2016 Rudolf van de Ven)

Chan Chan (© 2016 Rudolf van de Ven)

Chan Chan (© 2016 Rudolf van de Ven)

Inca

In the highlands of the Andes in South America, where Peru is now situated, one of the most remarkable civilizations of the pre-Columbian period emerged – the Incas. The rise of the Incas was a process spanning many centuries, with several leaders playing crucial roles. The exact origin of the Inca civilization is shrouded in mystery, but it appears that the earliest Inca societies developed in the highlands of Peru around the 12th century. Small kingdoms and tribes coexisted in this region.

The rise of the Incas gained new impetus under the leadership of Pachacuti (also known as Pachacutec) in the mid-15th century. Pachacuti succeeded in conquering various neighboring kingdoms, significantly expanding the territory of the Incas. Under his rule, the city of Cusco, once a modest settlement, was transformed into a magnificent capital. One remarkable aspect of the Inca Empire was the Tawantinsuyu system. This system involved the empire being governed by four quarters, or suyus, each led by a governor. The four suyus were Chinchaysuyu (north), Antisuyu (east), Kuntisuyu (west), and Collasuyu (south). The capital Cusco lay at the center.

After Pachacuti's death in 1471, his son, Topa Inca Yupanqui, ascended to power. Topa Inca continued the expansion of the empire, extending it far beyond the borders set by his father. Under his reign, the empire reached its greatest extent. Huayna Capac, Topa Inca's son, became the nineteenth Sapa Inca (emperor) of the Incas. He led the empire during a period of significant territorial expansion and cultural flourishing. However, his rule also marked the beginning of the end for the Inca Empire. During Huayna Capac's reign, he divided the empire between his two sons: Atahualpa received the northern half, while Huascar governed the southern half. This two-leader system would ultimately lead to internal strife for power.

In the year 1532, Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro arrived on the shores of South America, driven by rumors of the opulence of the Inca Empire. Accompanied by a small band of soldiers, Pizarro set his sights on the riches that lay within the heart of the Andes.

Pizarro's journey led him to Cajamarca, where, on November 16, 1532, he encountered Atahualpa, the ruler of the Inca Empire. In a strategic move, Pizarro arranged a meeting with Atahualpa, the unsuspecting Inca leader, and used the opportunity to launch a surprise attack, capturing him. Atahualpa, in captivity, offered an immense ransom in gold and silver for his release. Despite the Incas fulfilling their part of the bargain, Pizarro reneged on the agreement, leading to increased tensions and further weakening the Inca's position. In 1533, Francisco Pizarro accused Atahualpa of treason and executed him on July 26, 1533, leaving the Inca Empire leaderless and vulnerable. With the demise of Atahualpa, the Spanish conquest intensified as they moved toward the Inca capital, Cusco.

The capture of Atahualpa marked the beginning of the end for the Inca Empire. Internal divisions, coupled with the ruthless tactics employed by the Spanish, facilitated the conquest of Cusco in the same year. The once-mighty Inca Empire fell under Spanish rule, forever altering the course of Andean history.
As the Spanish conquest unfolded, it brought not only military dominance but also unintended consequences. European diseases, to which the indigenous populations had no immunity, ravaged the local communities. Smallpox, measles, and other diseases decimated the native populations, leading to a demographic catastrophe. The estimated pre-Columbian population of South America, which might have been around 50 million, plummeted to an estimated 8 million or even lower by the 17th century due to the devastating impact of diseases.

With the fall of the Inca Empire and the subsequent colonization, the local populations were subjected to exploitation and oppression. Forced labor, encomienda systems, and the extraction of valuable resources left indigenous communities impoverished. The silver mines of Potosí and other resource-rich regions became symbols of exploitation and suffering.

This pattern of exploitation and demographic decline extended across the entire continent. Similar experiences were witnessed in Central and North America, where the indigenous peoples faced the impact of European colonization. The consequences of this encounter were profound, reshaping societies, cultures, and landscapes.

In the centuries that followed, the struggle for independence emerged as a powerful force across Latin America during the 19th century. However, the road to independence was fraught with challenges, and the promise of freedom did not always translate into equitable outcomes for the indigenous populations. The estimated population nadir occurred in the 17th century, with the devastating effects of diseases and exploitation significantly reducing the indigenous population.

While Latin American countries gained political independence from colonial rule, the echoes of the past linger in the socio-economic disparities and the ongoing efforts to address historical injustices. The quest for justice, recognition of indigenous rights, and the preservation of cultural heritage remain integral to the complex tapestry of Latin American history. 

Inca Style (© 2016 Rudolf van de Ven)

Machu Picchu (© 2016 Rudolf van de Ven)

Presicion (© 2016 Rudolf van de Ven)